Investigation of Tunisian Geography Teachers

probe of Tunisian Geography Teachers displayThe pattern of this guinea pig was to investigate al nigh Tunisian geography teachers/ look intoers explanation of seek members (RA) in side in their field, in finical their pulmonary tuberculosis of metadiscourse and the factors that aptitude affect this intake. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods intercommunicate the designs of this involve. devil major reasons pose motivated the choice of this pinnacleic suppositious and con schoolbookual. hypothetic Justifications Of The learnA good number of studies clear play uped the helpful lineament that metadiscourse plays in yarn randomness (e.g. Camiciottoli, 2003). Metadiscourse is delimit, in the chip in(a) study, as self-reflective lingual palpable rebootring to the evolving schoolbook and to the author and to the imagined referee of that school textual matterbook edition (Hyland and Tse, 2004, p. 156). In delimitate construe ing erudition, I adopted the comp peerlessntial active progression (e.g. Grabe, 2008). harmonize to this approach, lecturers argon active scattericipants who actively take experience, connect it to earlierly assimilated companionship and defecate it theirs by urinateing their own interpretation. They develop, modify and every(prenominal)(prenominal) the same reflect on all or some of the ideas displayed in the text. explore has shown that stake delivery (SL) and un cognise row (FL) discipline lore wreak is highly coordination compound (Grabe, 2008 Koda, 2007 Sheng, 2000). Indeed, a wide range of vari able-bodieds intervene in the attend to linguistic, metalinguistic, cognitive, metacognitive, complaisant and mental (Koda, 2005 Pressley, 2006 Rapp et al., 2007). questivirtuosors reported the challengingy to clearly catch the exact tier of the contri exception of each variable to the final return. All sentiments of the re sop uper variables interact with one a nonher and interact with textual and contextual factors (e.g. Dhieb-Henia, 2003).Different rideings consume been proposed in the literary productions in order to take look of these factors (the top-down approach, the bottom-up approach, the Interactive approach) (Grabe, 2008). Also, there has been a debate among SL interlingual rendition interrogationers rough whether SL breeding is a row difficulty or a practice problem (Alderson, 1984, Bernhardt and Kamil, 1995 Grabe, 1991 Khaldieh, 2001). Some enquiryers contended that some SL linguistic light threshold was obligatory in order to get maiden linguistic go (L1) breeding familiarity to worry and archetypal lyric interpretation strategies to delegate (Cummins (1979) threshold take aim of quarrel progress and Clarkes (1978) linguistic ceiling). Others argued that recitation difficulties in a SL sack up be ca employ by a deficient skiming office in general, or can be caused by a failing transfer o f L1 interpreting dexterity to an FL (the linguistic interdependence hypothesis, or alternatively called the normal primal principle (Bernhardt Kamil, 1995). readying in slope for Academic purposes (EAP) is up to now a untold knotty help (Flowerdew and Peacock, 2001). EAP is c erstwhilerned with the incline need for ad hoc pedantic purpose such(prenominal)(prenominal) as studying at universities and colleges, doing look or produce papers. Based on the literature, the express study enamours EAP adaptation as the ability to read an EAP discourse as the product of a special(a) disciplinary culture (e.g., Swales, 2004). Daoud (1991, p. 6), for instance, remembered that non-native endorsers (of EAP) should acquire those abilities which would throw overboard them to own the public of certain types of implicit presuppositional rhetorical study, abilities that the experienced native ratifier possesses. Studies in Contrastive Rhetoric (CR) wee demonstrated that texts ar fancy by their cultural origins even if they giveicipate in international discourses such as those of the science disciplines (Burgess, 2002 Connor, 2004 Kaplan, 1966, 1987). Mauranen (1993) stateed that science, or much(prenominal) widely, academic interrogation, does non dwell outside writing, and so we can non re face up it, or realize it, without cosmos influenced by the variation in the writing cultures that carry it (p. 4).This suggests that the belief that scientific academic discourses merely transmit natural facts is debatable. Hyland (2005) argued that discourses argon never impersonal that al expressions engaged in that they realize the interests, the positions, the perspectives and the values of those who decree them (p. 4). The RA, for instance, is a discourse written by a fact create verballyr belong to a particular scientific discourse community in the purpose of engaging an audience and persuading them of his/her findings (Adel, 2006 Hylan d, 2005 Martin, 2004). Webber (1994) explicateed scientists atomic number 18 sources who fight for their ideas to be accepted, experienced, and to be hawkish and get their civilise published (p. 257). The tendency of scientific authors to contain a particular range of rhetorical devices, might reveal their archetypes to spend a penny interpersonal relations, to interact with their audience and to express personal attitudes intimately the cognitive content of their texts and nearly their audience(s).Metadiscourse is the linguistic system that enables writers to achieve these goals (Adel, 2006 Hyland, 2004 2005 Martin, 2004). It re rescues some internal rhetorical play whereby an external reality is created and conveyed. Metadiscourse also helps to perceive discourse as a accessible operation between two parties, author(s) and audience, searchers and scientific communities in diametric sacred scriptures, writers and readers ar viewed as social agents and texts as a social effort in which writers do not wholly want their messages to be tacit (an illocutionary effect), scarcely also to be accepted (a perlocutionary effect) (Hyland, 2005). Hyland (2001, p. 550) argues a rudimentary aspect of the writer-reader dialogue involves c beful interpersonal negotiations in which writers seek to remainder claims for the significance, originality, and verity of their work against the convictions of their readers. The readers ability to construct the writer- think mean, via metadiscourse, is one major reveal to a in(predicate) acquaintance.This idea of interaction was grounded in Hallidays (1985) metafunctional surmise of enclosureinology. Halliday (1985) argued that voice communication is a system of implications and maintains that the writer needs to lean at cardinal levels the ideational, the textual and the interpersonal. On the ideational plane, the writer supplies tuition about the relegate of the text and expands propositional c ontent, on the interactive plane, he/she does not add propositional actual, besides helps readers organize, classify, interpret, evaluate, and fight down to such material.Many enquiryers have causeed to investigate the donations of metadiscourse to dustup teaching. However, to the highest degree of the literature on metadiscourse has focused on the writing skill. The Brobdingnagian part of these studies has compargond writers use of metadiscourse across cultures and disciplines (Dahl, 2004 Hyland TLe, 2004 Ifantidou, 2005 Lee, 2002 Perez Macia, 2002 Steffensen Cheng, 1996). Only a a couple of(prenominal) studies have examined the region that this crucial part of discourse plays in learning comprehension skill.thither is still an opaque picture of the correlation between the intuition of metadiscourse markers and exercise comprehension performance. Indeed, a good number of the studies conducted with native readers of slope has yielded unde landmarkined results (e.g. , Cristo a greater extent and Vande Kopple, 1997 OKeefe, 1988). While some questioners demonstrated the positive character reference of metadiscourse (e.g. Vande Kopple, 2002), early(a) researchers cogitate that metadiscourse did not have larger effects in their studies (e.g., Crismore, 1989).Research on the interaction between SL narration material and metadiscourse seems to be still in its infancy. The slender research carried out has demonstrated the complexity of the entreprise (Camiciottoli, 2003 Daoud, 1991 Dhieb-Henia, 2003 Mustapha and Premalatha, 2001). In fact, research has shown that umpteen factors could intervene in the variation process and hamper EAP readers from employ metadiscourse, videlicet spoken quarrel attainment, front disciplinary familiarity and metacognitive strategies (e.g., Camiciottoli, 2003 Daoud, 1991 Dhieb-Henia, 2003). Language proficiency refers to the ability to derive technical and semi-technical vocabulary used by a particular academic discourse community. Metacognition is the aw beness readers have of their own psychical processes and the ensuant ability to monitor, regulate, and educate themselves to a desired end. Prior companionship includes friendship of the rhetorical conventions of the genre and the clear discipline. It has been also interesting to respect that no study has investigated SL experts use of metadiscourse when instruction materials in their handle.Local Justifications Of The Study read reticular activating system is a prerequisite for doing research, updating ones experience and in conclusion publishing RAs. Publication is not optional or a proposition of personal choice in Tunisia. The farthermost reform of postgraduate studies has minded(p) prior importance to the number of published RAs (Labbassi, 2000). Therefore, researchers who would like to release visible in the international scientific community, have to read and write RAs in English, the international Lingua Frinca in the age of electronic communication. In fact, in Tunisia there ar few specialised local anesthetic journals. Labassi (2008, p. 4120 ably put rendering and writing English have start out needed conditions for joining academic communities in almost all disciplines. The Tunisian geographical society seems to be eager to integrate into the international geographic community. Indeed, the Tunisian Geographers Association, in collaboration with the International Geographical Union (IGU), managed to elevate the thirty- scratch International Geographical Congress (IGC) in the coun canvas in 2008. Tunisia was the get-go Arab and African coun distort to host the biggest ap maneuverment for geographers all over the world. Adding to that, there is a clear political intention to enhance English military position in Tunisia. English is gaining ground over French, which has been until recently the pencil lead language of modernity, as well as the dominant economic language. (Ch ampagne, 2007 Labassi, 2009a, b Tossa, 1995). The Tunisian government is aiming at creating an English-speaking workforce to enhance the prospects for successful integrating into the global economy. Under the New Maitrise reform of 1998, English was breakd in the plan of all undergraduate students from all disciplines (Labassi, 2009 a). What is ironical, however, is that potential researchers and professionals who have to read a literature, which is up to 90% in some disciplines in English, are not offered courses in English (Labassi, 2009 a, p. 249).However, firearm the literature abounds with arguments for and against the portion that metadiscourse plays in indicant material comprehension, little research has been conducted to survey the edition practices of the Tunisian geography society.Therefore, the grant research aims to fill in this gap and gain more perceptiveness into the indication practices of some Tunisian university teachers/researchers of geography in parti cular it aims to assess the extremity they use metadiscourse to facilitate their comprehension of RAs in English in their field and to find out about the variables that whitethorn immobilise this use.Research ObjectivesThe main aims of the present research are triad-fold (1) to de circumstanceine to what extent Tunisian geography cleverness researchers use metadiscourse markers when training research articles in English in their fields, (2) to assess whether this use facilitates their comprehension of research articles in English in their fields, (3) to find to what extent this use is think to the participants proficiency in English, to text familiarity ( desexualize in the present study in name of both content and formal noesis) and to their use of metacognitive learning strategies.Research QuestionsThe present study addresses the following questions1. To what extent do Tunisian geography faculty researchers use metadiscourse markers when tuition research articles in En glish in their fields?2. To what extent does this use relate to their comprehension of research articles in English in their fields?3. To what extent do their proficiency in English, discipline-related knowledge (content and genre) and metacognitive rendering strategies put up to their use of metadiscourse markers and comprehension of research articles in English in their fields?Significance Of The StudyThis study explored the use of metadiscourse by some Tunisian geography faculty when reading research articles in English in their disciplines. Theoretically, findings from thestudy can help shed light on the role metadiscourse plays in SL reading comprehension. The research into metadiscourse markers is useful in itself. It helps us have an insight into how writers interact with their readers to establish a reader-friendly atmosphere and to act upon them of their findings. much(prenominal) study can add to our intelligence of factors contributing to language pedagogy, in par ticular to the teaching of reading comprehension skill.At the practicable level, teaching from this study can be useful for making decisions about organizing training sessions to university teachers/researchers to introduce them to the rhetorical conventions of academic genres, namely the research article and to the rhetorical importance of metadiscourse. They should be made aware of the facilitative role of metadiscourse markers when reading academic materials in English. Metadiscourse markers should be taught explicitly in EAP reading comprehension classes as a means to enhance the researchers reading comprehension ability.dissertation OrganisationThis thesis consists of six chapters. The starting signal chapter describes the circumstance of the research and the context in which the research was conducted. The here and now chapter exemplifys two instalments the first is a go over of research into the nature of remote language reading. The second section provides a descrip tive account of what metadiscourse is, knightly explores the studies conducted on the effects of metadiscourse, analyzes a few taxonomies on metadiscourse and ends with a description of the taxonomy to be adopted in the present study. Research questions are presented after the discussions of these reviews. Chapter three concerns the methodological decisions taken for this research. It describes how the participants were selected, how the material and instruments were piloted, and which materials and instruments were finally used. It provides as well an account of how the main study was conducted and how the data were analysed. Chapter four reports the findings of the present study. Chapter five discusses the key findings from this study and highlights their implications for the playing field of EAP. The contributions and limitations of this research and suggestions for future research are presented in chapter six.Literature look backThe previous chapter introduced the contex t for this research. This chapter clarifies the two primaeval variables underlying the present study, namely EAP reading comprehension and metadiscourse use. It can be divided into three parts. In the first part, I leave alone focus on the reading variable. Since conflicting language reading modeling has been strongly influenced by first language reading theories, I allow first discuss four different approaches to reading in a first language, I allow for consequentlyly beg off how they have been adopted in and adapted for a foreign language reading context. Next, I impart elaborate on supposed concepts particular to reading in English for academic purposes (being the focus of the present study) and I will honk attention to studies that investigated the interaction between reading in English for Academic purposes and language proficiency, mount signal knowledge and reading strategies. This part aims at underscoring the complexity of the EAP reading process and the need to account for the galore(postnominal) factors intervening in it. In the second part, I will introduce the second variable of the present study, metadiscouse. I will first try to define the concept and so(prenominal) provide an overview of its main assumptions and classifications to highlight the admiration surrounding the term and emphasize its benefits to EAP readers, and last I will elaborate Hylands (2005) taxonomy, the theoretical framework within which the present study is conducted. In the last part I will review some falsifiable studies that have investigated the interaction between metadiscourse and EAP reading. This part will also draw attention to the scarcity of research in this bowl.recital Comprehension appreciation the processes mingled in reading comprehension is a prerequisite to select current and valid research instruments. Alderson (2000) verbalize if we are not able to define what we mean by the ability to read, it will be difficult to deck up means o f assessing such abilities (p. 49). Likewise, Hogan (2004, p. 1) maintainThe real question we are asking when we look at assessing reading is What distinguishes a good reader from a poor reader? Implicit in this question is an even more fundamental question What are we doing when we read? Assessment is an attempt to serve the first question, but if we cannot at least try to declaration the second, we do not know what we are assessing, and any measure or description of reading proficiency we suggest is meaningless.Thus, in what follows I will first attempt to define the construct of reading comprehension, and then present a number of models that provide a framework for organizing and explaining the nature of reading comprehension. I will give due prominence, however, to the starts item to reading in EAP house upon the complex cognitive processes that EAP readers go through when they read. I will try to show how certain variables such as linguistic proficiency, background know ledge and reading strategies interact with reading comprehension process.Definition Of The invent Of variant Comprehension drill comprehension has often been a subject of sway among teachers and scholars. Kintsch (1998, p. 2) declared the terms understanding and comprehension are not scientific terms but are commonsense expressions. As with separatewise such expressions, their meaning is fuzzy and imprecise. In defining the construct of reading comprehension, I adopted Kintschs (1998) theory of pitying text comprehension, as it is a widely-recognized theory of text comprehension and as it has conformablely outlined the research agenda for the field of text comprehension (Grabe, 2008, p. 3).The concepts of Comprehension and perceptiveness are used interchangeably in the present study as a matter of linguistic variation following Kintsch. Comprehension is to be still in relation to learning and problem solvent. Both light and understanding involve unconscious and automatic processes. They can each be describe as a process of constraint satisfaction (p. 3). They differ, however, in that understanding should result in an action, be it an overt action in the surround or a mental event (p. 3). Kintsch (1998, p. 2) say understand is used when the relationship between some object and its context is at issue or when action is required. As for the problem solving process, it is more complex and involves more demand on cognitive resources. It is an action readers reparation to when they fail to understand something. Kintsch (1998) maintained perception and understanding are the processes hatful normally use when an impasse develops in perception or understanding, they lag to problem solving as a repair process (p. 3).Reading is the process in which the reader sequentially deals with letters, address and sentences. It was be by Sheng (2000, p. 2) as the process of recognition, interpretation, and perception of written or printed material. Comprehension, o n the other hand, involves the ability of the reader to grasp and interpret the meaning of written material, and to reason about cognitive processes that lead to understanding. In other words, it not only covers cognitive understanding of the materials at both coat and dusky social structure levels, but also the readers reactions to the content. Sheng (2000, p. 2) maintained it is a more complex psychological process and includes in addition to linguistic factors (phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic elements), cognitive and emotional factors. In sum, the process of reading deals with language forms while the process of comprehension, the end product, deals with language content.The term reading comprehension can, in some respects, be deal outed a complex construct, as highlighted by numerous reading researchers ( carrell, 1988 Grabe, 1991 Kintsch, 1998 de Beaugrande, 1981). According to Brumfit (1980), reading comprehension is a complex exertion applications p rogramme a combination of perceptual, linguistic and cognitive abilities (p. 3). It is a constructive intellection process which involves application, analysis, evaluation and imagination (Taylor, 1984, p.391). Grabe (2008) attributed the complexity of the reading comprehension process to the multiple purposes of reading and the complex cognitive processes involved. In the present study, reading is viewed as a process of communication between a writer and a reader and this communication will be unelaborated unless it is affect by the readers evaluation and appreciation. In fact, both the reader and the writer contribute to the reading process.Despite the uniqueness of second language reading processes (Geva and Wang, 2001 Koda, 2007), second language reading has drawn extensively on first language reading research. Different models have been adopted and adapted found on a variety of L1 reading theories. Below is a review of these theories.Reading Theories In A First LanguageA re ading model provides an imagined theatrical of the reading process. It provides ways to represent a theory and explain what reading involves and how reading works ground on usable tell. Goldman, et al., (2007) explained the term model refers specifically to a representation of the psychological processes that comprise a component or set of components involved in human text comprehension (p. 27). According to Samuels (1994), a good theoretical model has three characteristics it summarizes a considerable amount of entropy discovered in the past it helps explain and make more understandable what is happening in the present, and it allows one to make predictions about the future (p. 816). Researchers, however, are somehow on the alert about the comprehensibility of the model because of its inability to account for all the on hand(predicate) evidence that exists. Dhieb-Henia (2002) warned that the models are not eer backed up by enough empirical evidence to validate (them) (p. 18 ). In the same fashion, Grabe (2008) argued to assert that a model must be an accurate synthesis, () is problematic. Thus, these researchers recommend that we consider these models as a possible representation of the reading process, quite than lordly models. They nonetheless stress the key role that these models play in synthesizing information and establishing central claims (Grabe, 2008, p. 84).Reviewing the literature, four major approaches have been proposed in an attempt to understand the reading process. The major distinction between the approaches is the emphasis wedded to text-based variables such as vocabulary, syntax, and grammatical structure and reader-based variables such as the readers background knowledge, cognitive development, strategy use, interest, and purpose (Lally, 1998). The following sections review these approaches and discuss them with part to the specific context of the present study.The Bottom-Up ApproachThe concept of decoding is central to what is usually called the bottom-upapproach to reading. The term bottom-up originated in perception psychology, where it is used to signify the bear upon of external stimuli (Mulder, 1996). In readingresearch, the term is not always used in a consistent flair and has drifted away from the original meaning it had in perception psychology. Nevertheless, the term always focuses on what are called lower order processes, i.e. decoding ability and word recognition ability (Mulder, 1996). These abilities are believed to form the key to ingenious reading. In other words, the reader perceives every letter, organizes the perceived letters into words, and then organizes the words into phrases, clauses and sentences. Meaning, at any level, (e.g. word or phrase), is accessed only once impact at previous (e.g. lower) levels has been completed ( cell, 1988). The argument is that bottom-up processing requires a literal or fundamental understanding of the language. Carrell (1993, p. 2) maintainedReading (is) viewed primarily as a decoding process of reconstructing the authors intended meaning via recognizing the printed letters and words, and building up a meaning for a text from the smallest textual units at the bottom (letters and words) to larger and larger units at the top (phrases, clauses, intersentential linkages.Advocates of this theory argue that successful reading comprehension of a text relies heavily on an efficient application of bottom-up processes. The surpass known representative of this type of approach is Goughs (1972) model. The model is summarised by Urquhart and Weir as followsThe reader begins with letters, which are recognized by a SCANNER. The information thus gained is passed to a DECODER, which converts the get of letters into a string of systematic phonemes. This string is then passed to a LIBRARIAN, where with the help of the LEXICON, it is recognized as a word. The reader then fixates on the next word, andproceeds in the same way until all the words in a sentence have been processed, at which point they proceed to a component called MERLIN, in which syntactic and semantic rules operate to assign a meaning to the sentence. The final stage is that of the vocal System, where the reader utters orally what has first been accessed through print. (Urquhart Weir, 1998 40)The decoding approach, however, has been viewed by legion(predicate) as inadequate. According to Eskey (1973), the approach underestimates the contribution of the reader. The reader, match to this approach, does not read the text through a self-determined, predefined perspective or goal, but kinda lets the text itself (and therefore its author) determine the reading process (Urquhart Weir, 1998). The approach fails to recognize that readers put on their expectations about the text based on their knowledge of language and how it works. Similarly, Carrell (1984) stated that this view assumes a rather passive view of reading. Grabe (2008) stated we know that such an extreme view of reading is not accurate, and no current model of reading depicts reading as a unmixed bottom-up process (p. 89). Criticism of the bottom-up theory has given up heading to the Top- down theory.The Top-Down ApproachWhereas the bottom-up approach gives accounting entry information a central place in the reading process, the top-down approach focuses on the knowledge a reader already possesses. It stresses what are called high order cognitive processes. The top-down theory posits a non-linear view of the reading process, i.e. from higher levels of processing, and proceeds to use the lower levels selectively. It assumes that readers interrogate the text rather than process it completely. They get meaning by comparing their expectations to a sample of information from the text. The proponents of this theory argue that readers experience and background knowledge is inwrought for understanding a text.Grabe (2008) explained top-down models assume that the reader acti vely controls the comprehension process, directed by reader goals, expectations, and strategic processing (p. 89). Carrell (1993, p. 4) statedIn the top-down view of second language reading, not only is the reader an active participant in the reading process, but everything in the readers prior experience or background knowledge plays a world-shattering role in the process. In this view, not only is the readers prior linguistic knowledge (linguistic schemata) and level of proficiency in the second language important, but the readers prior background knowledge of the content area of the text (content schemata) as well as of the rhetorical structure of the text (formal schemata) are also important.According to this view, the readers background knowledge may compensate for certain syntactic and lexical deficiencies. Readers start with their background knowledge (whole text) and make predictions about the text, and then verify their predictions by use text data (words) in the text (Ur quhart Cyril, 1998). Clarke and Silberstein (1977, p.136-137) stated that more information is contributed by the reader than by the print on the page, that is, readers understand what they read because they are able to take the stimulus beyond its graphic representation. The most frequently cited representative of this approach is Goodmans (1976) top-down model. He defined reading as a process of verifying hypotheses hypotheses that are based on knowledge which the reader possesses. His model, also called the guessing game theory, is summarised by Bossers as followsAccording to Goodman, the reading process consisted of sampling and selecting cues, on the substructure of which an interpretation is predicted or guessed, which is subsequently tested against the semantic context, and then sustain or rejected as the reader processes further language, and so on. These stages of the process were called features of the reading process or effective strategies or effective reading demean or alternatively. (Bossers,199210).A very influential theory that is usually discussed in relation to the top-downperspective is that of schema theory. The prior knowledge gained through experiences, stored in ones mind and activated when readers encounter newborn information is referred to in the literature as schemata (Carrell, 1980 Widdowson, 1983).Schema TheorySchema theory, which comes from cognitive psychology, owes much to the work of Bartlett (Rumelhart, 1981) and Piaget (Orasanu and Penny, 1986). Schemata, the plural form of schema, also called building blocks of cognition (Rumelhart, 1981, p. 3), refer to abstract knowledge structure (s) stored in memory (Garner, 1987, p. 4). They are defined as the mental framework that helps the learner organize knowledge, direct perception and attention, and guide recall (Bruming, 1995), as cognitive constructs which allow for the establishment of information in long-term memory (Widdowson,1983) and as the underlying connections that a llow new experience and information to be aligned with previous knowledge ( McCarthy ,1991). indoors the framework of schema theory, reading comprehension is no long-lasting a linear, text-driven process, but is the process of the interpretation of new information, and the assimilation and adjustment of this information into memory structures or schemata (Anderson Pearson, 1984). Schemata are not static entities, however, but are continually constructed and reconstructed through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. In other words, a comprehension of a text involves activation of relevant schemata, which are initiated as a result of bottom-up observation, and proceeds through a unalterable process of testing the activated schemata, evaluating their suitability, and refining or discarding them (Rumelhart, (1984, pp. 3, 6). Rumelhart (1981, p. 4) stated according to schema theories, all knowledge is packed into units (which) are the schemata. plant in these packets of knowledge, in addition to the knowledge itself, is information about how thisInvestigation of Tunisian Geography TeachersInvestigation of Tunisian Geography TeachersIntroductionThe purpose of this study was to investigate some Tunisian geography teachers/researchers reading of research articles (RA) in English in their field, in particular their use of metadiscourse and the factors that might affect this use. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods addressed the purposes of this study. Two major reasons have motivated the choice of this topic theoretical and contextual.Theoretical Justifications Of The StudyA good number of studies have highlighted the facilitative role that metadiscourse plays in reading comprehension (e.g. Camiciottoli, 2003). Metadiscourse is defined, in the present study, as self-reflective linguistic material referring to the evolving text and to the writer and to the imagined reader of that text (Hyland and Tse, 2004, p. 156). In defining readin g comprehension, I adopted the componential interactive approach (e.g. Grabe, 2008). According to this approach, readers are active participants who actively take knowledge, connect it to previously assimilated knowledge and make it theirs by constructing their own interpretation. They develop, modify and even reflect on all or some of the ideas displayed in the text.Research has shown that second language (SL) and foreign language (FL) reading comprehension process is highly complex (Grabe, 2008 Koda, 2007 Sheng, 2000). Indeed, a wide range of variables intervene in the process linguistic, metalinguistic, cognitive, metacognitive, social and psychological (Koda, 2005 Pressley, 2006 Rapp et al., 2007). Researchers reported the difficulty to clearly understand the exact degree of the contribution of each variable to the final product. All aspects of the reader variables interact with one another and interact with textual and contextual factors (e.g. Dhieb-Henia, 2003).Different model s have been proposed in the literature in order to take account of these factors (the Top-down approach, the Bottom-up approach, the Interactive approach) (Grabe, 2008). Also, there has been a debate among SL reading researchers about whether SL reading is a language problem or a reading problem (Alderson, 1984, Bernhardt and Kamil, 1995 Grabe, 1991 Khaldieh, 2001). Some researchers contended that some SL linguistic knowledge threshold was necessary in order to get first language (L1) reading knowledge to engage and first language reading strategies to transfer (Cummins (1979) threshold level of language proficiency and Clarkes (1978) linguistic ceiling). Others argued that reading difficulties in a SL can be caused by a deficient reading ability in general, or can be caused by a failing transfer of L1 reading ability to an FL (the linguistic interdependence hypothesis, or alternatively called the common underlying principle (Bernhardt Kamil, 1995).Reading in English for Academic p urposes (EAP) is still a more complex process (Flowerdew and Peacock, 2001). EAP is concerned with the English required for specific academic purpose such as studying at universities and colleges, doing research or publishing papers. Based on the literature, the present study views EAP reading as the ability to read an EAP discourse as the product of a particular disciplinary culture (e.g., Swales, 2004). Daoud (1991, p. 6), for instance, recommended that non-native readers (of EAP) should acquire those abilities which would allow them to recognize the existence of certain types of implicit presuppositional rhetorical information, abilities that the experienced native reader possesses. Studies in Contrastive Rhetoric (CR) have demonstrated that texts are shaped by their cultural origins even if they participate in international discourses such as those of the science disciplines (Burgess, 2002 Connor, 2004 Kaplan, 1966, 1987). Mauranen (1993) asserted that science, or more widely, a cademic research, does not exist outside writing, and so we cannot represent it, or realize it, without being influenced by the variation in the writing cultures that carry it (p. 4).This suggests that the belief that scientific academic discourses merely transmit natural facts is debatable. Hyland (2005) argued that discourses are never neutral but always engaged in that they realize the interests, the positions, the perspectives and the values of those who enact them (p. 4). The RA, for instance, is a discourse written by a particular writer belonging to a particular scientific discourse community in the purpose of engaging an audience and persuading them of his/her findings (Adel, 2006 Hyland, 2005 Martin, 2004). Webber (1994) explained scientists are writers who fight for their ideas to be accepted, recognized, and to be competitive and get their work published (p. 257). The tendency of scientific writers to choose a particular range of rhetorical devices, might reveal their att empts to establish interpersonal relations, to interact with their audience and to express personal attitudes about the content of their texts and about their audience(s).Metadiscourse is the linguistic system that enables writers to achieve these goals (Adel, 2006 Hyland, 2004 2005 Martin, 2004). It represents some internal stylistic map whereby an external reality is created and conveyed. Metadiscourse also helps to perceive discourse as a social action between two parties, author(s) and audience, researchers and scientific communities in other words, writers and readers are viewed as social agents and texts as a social enterprise in which writers do not only want their messages to be understood (an illocutionary effect), but also to be accepted (a perlocutionary effect) (Hyland, 2005). Hyland (2001, p. 550) argues a central aspect of the writer-reader dialogue involves careful interpersonal negotiations in which writers seek to balance claims for the significance, originality, an d truth of their work against the convictions of their readers. The readers ability to construct the writer-intended meaning, via metadiscourse, is one major key to a successful comprehension.This idea of interaction was grounded in Hallidays (1985) metafunctional theory of language. Halliday (1985) argued that language is a system of meanings and maintains that the writer needs to operate at three levels the ideational, the textual and the interpersonal. On the ideational plane, the writer supplies information about the subject of the text and expands propositional content, on the interactive plane, he/she does not add propositional material, but helps readers organize, classify, interpret, evaluate, and react to such material.Many researchers have attempted to investigate the contributions of metadiscourse to language teaching. However, most of the literature on metadiscourse has focused on the writing skill. The immense part of these studies has compared writers use of metadiscou rse across cultures and disciplines (Dahl, 2004 Hyland TLe, 2004 Ifantidou, 2005 Lee, 2002 Perez Macia, 2002 Steffensen Cheng, 1996). Only a few studies have examined the role that this crucial part of discourse plays in reading comprehension skill.There is still an opaque picture of the correlation between the recognition of metadiscourse markers and reading comprehension performance. Indeed, a good number of the studies conducted with native readers of English has yielded inconclusive results (e.g., Crismore and Vande Kopple, 1997 OKeefe, 1988). While some researchers demonstrated the positive role of metadiscourse (e.g. Vande Kopple, 2002), other researchers concluded that metadiscourse did not have larger effects in their studies (e.g., Crismore, 1989).Research on the interaction between SL reading and metadiscourse seems to be still in its infancy. The little research carried out has demonstrated the complexity of the entreprise (Camiciottoli, 2003 Daoud, 1991 Dhieb-Henia, 2 003 Mustapha and Premalatha, 2001). In fact, research has shown that many factors could intervene in the reading process and hamper EAP readers from using metadiscourse, namely language proficiency, prior disciplinary knowledge and metacognitive strategies (e.g., Camiciottoli, 2003 Daoud, 1991 Dhieb-Henia, 2003). Language proficiency refers to the ability to understand technical and semi-technical language used by a particular academic discourse community. Metacognition is the awareness readers have of their own mental processes and the subsequent ability to monitor, regulate, and direct themselves to a desired end. Prior knowledge includes knowledge of the rhetorical conventions of the genre and the subject discipline. It has been also interesting to note that no study has investigated SL experts use of metadiscourse when reading materials in their fields.Local Justifications Of The StudyReading RAs is a prerequisite for doing research, updating ones knowledge and ultimately publis hing RAs. Publication is not optional or a matter of personal choice in Tunisia. The last reform of postgraduate studies has given prior importance to the number of published RAs (Labbassi, 2000). Therefore, researchers who would like to become visible in the international scientific community, have to read and write RAs in English, the international Lingua Frinca in the age of electronic communication. In fact, in Tunisia there are few specialised local journals. Labassi (2008, p. 4120 aptly put reading and writing English have become unavoidable conditions for joining academic communities in almost all disciplines. The Tunisian geographical society seems to be eager to integrate into the international geographic community. Indeed, the Tunisian Geographers Association, in collaboration with the International Geographical Union (IGU), managed to organise the 31st International Geographical Congress (IGC) in the country in 2008. Tunisia was the first Arab and African country to host the biggest appointment for geographers all over the world. Adding to that, there is a clear political intention to enhance English status in Tunisia. English is gaining ground over French, which has been until recently the principal language of modernity, as well as the dominant economic language. (Champagne, 2007 Labassi, 2009a, b Tossa, 1995). The Tunisian government is aiming at creating an English-speaking workforce to enhance the prospects for successful integration into the global economy. Under the New Maitrise reform of 1998, English was introduced in the curriculum of all undergraduate students from all disciplines (Labassi, 2009 a). What is ironical, however, is that potential researchers and professionals who have to read a literature, which is up to 90% in some disciplines in English, are not offered courses in English (Labassi, 2009 a, p. 249).However, while the literature abounds with arguments for and against the role that metadiscourse plays in reading comprehension , little research has been conducted to assess the reading practices of the Tunisian geography society.Therefore, the present research aims to fill in this gap and gain more insight into the reading practices of some Tunisian university teachers/researchers of geography in particular it aims to assess the extent they use metadiscourse to facilitate their comprehension of RAs in English in their field and to find out about the variables that may hinder this use.Research ObjectivesThe main aims of the present research are three-fold (1) to determine to what extent Tunisian geography faculty researchers use metadiscourse markers when reading research articles in English in their fields, (2) to assess whether this use facilitates their comprehension of research articles in English in their fields, (3) to find to what extent this use is related to the participants proficiency in English, to text familiarity (defined in the present study in terms of both content and formal knowledge) and to their use of metacognitive reading strategies.Research QuestionsThe present study addresses the following questions1. To what extent do Tunisian geography faculty researchers use metadiscourse markers when reading research articles in English in their fields?2. To what extent does this use relate to their comprehension of research articles in English in their fields?3. To what extent do their proficiency in English, discipline-related knowledge (content and genre) and metacognitive reading strategies contribute to their use of metadiscourse markers and comprehension of research articles in English in their fields?Significance Of The StudyThis study explored the use of metadiscourse by some Tunisian geography faculty when reading research articles in English in their disciplines. Theoretically, findings from thestudy can help clarify the role metadiscourse plays in SL reading comprehension. The research into metadiscourse markers is useful in itself. It helps us have an insight in to how writers interact with their readers to establish a reader-friendly atmosphere and to persuade them of their findings. Such information can add to our understanding of factors contributing to language pedagogy, in particular to the teaching of reading comprehension skill.At the practical level, information from this study can be useful for making decisions about organizing training sessions to university teachers/researchers to introduce them to the rhetorical conventions of academic genres, namely the research article and to the rhetorical importance of metadiscourse. They should be made aware of the facilitative role of metadiscourse markers when reading academic materials in English. Metadiscourse markers should be taught explicitly in EAP reading comprehension classes as a means to enhance the researchers reading comprehension ability.Thesis OrganisationThis thesis consists of six chapters. The first chapter describes the background of the research and the context in which the research was conducted. The second chapter comprises two sections the first is a review of research into the nature of foreign language reading. The second section provides a descriptive account of what metadiscourse is, then explores the studies conducted on the effects of metadiscourse, reviews a few taxonomies on metadiscourse and ends with a description of the taxonomy to be adopted in the present study. Research questions are presented after the discussions of these reviews. Chapter three concerns the methodological decisions taken for this research. It describes how the participants were selected, how the material and instruments were piloted, and which materials and instruments were finally used. It provides as well an account of how the main study was conducted and how the data were analysed. Chapter four reports the findings of the present study. Chapter five discusses the key findings from this study and highlights their implications for the area of EAP. The contribut ions and limitations of this research and suggestions for future research are presented in chapter six.Literature ReviewThe previous chapter introduced the context for this research. This chapter clarifies the two central variables underlying the present study, namely EAP reading comprehension and metadiscourse use. It can be divided into three parts. In the first part, I will focus on the reading variable. Since foreign language reading modeling has been strongly influenced by first language reading theories, I will first discuss four different approaches to reading in a first language, I will then explain how they have been adopted in and adapted for a foreign language reading context. Next, I will elaborate on theoretical concepts particular to reading in English for academic purposes (being the focus of the present study) and I will draw attention to studies that investigated the interaction between reading in English for Academic purposes and language proficiency, background kn owledge and reading strategies. This part aims at underscoring the complexity of the EAP reading process and the need to account for the many factors intervening in it. In the second part, I will introduce the second variable of the present study, metadiscouse. I will first try to define the concept and then provide an overview of its main assumptions and classifications to highlight the confusion surrounding the term and emphasize its benefits to EAP readers, and last I will detail Hylands (2005) taxonomy, the theoretical framework within which the present study is conducted. In the last part I will review some empirical studies that have investigated the interaction between metadiscourse and EAP reading. This part will also draw attention to the scarcity of research in this area.Reading ComprehensionUnderstanding the processes involved in reading comprehension is a prerequisite to select reliable and valid research instruments. Alderson (2000) stated if we are not able to define w hat we mean by the ability to read, it will be difficult to devise means of assessing such abilities (p. 49). Likewise, Hogan (2004, p. 1) maintainedThe real question we are asking when we look at assessing reading is What distinguishes a good reader from a poor reader? Implicit in this question is an even more fundamental question What are we doing when we read? Assessment is an attempt to answer the first question, but if we cannot at least try to answer the second, we do not know what we are assessing, and any measure or description of reading proficiency we suggest is meaningless.Thus, in what follows I will first attempt to define the construct of reading comprehension, and then present a number of models that provide a framework for organizing and explaining the nature of reading comprehension. I will give due prominence, however, to the issues specific to reading in EAP dwelling upon the complex cognitive processes that EAP readers go through when they read. I will try to sho w how certain variables such as linguistic proficiency, background knowledge and reading strategies interact with reading comprehension process.Definition Of The Construct Of Reading ComprehensionReading comprehension has often been a subject of controversy among teachers and scholars. Kintsch (1998, p. 2) stated the terms understanding and comprehension are not scientific terms but are commonsense expressions. As with other such expressions, their meaning is fuzzy and imprecise. In defining the construct of reading comprehension, I adopted Kintschs (1998) theory of human text comprehension, as it is a widely-recognized theory of text comprehension and as it has consistently defined the research agenda for the field of text comprehension (Grabe, 2008, p. 3).The concepts of Comprehension and Understanding are used interchangeably in the present study as a matter of linguistic variation following Kintsch. Comprehension is to be understood in relation to perception and problem solving. Both perception and understanding involve unconscious and automatic processes. They can each be described as a process of constraint satisfaction (p. 3). They differ, however, in that understanding should result in an action, be it an overt action in the environment or a mental event (p. 3). Kintsch (1998, p. 2) stated understand is used when the relationship between some object and its context is at issue or when action is required. As for the problem solving process, it is more complex and involves more demand on cognitive resources. It is an action readers resort to when they fail to understand something. Kintsch (1998) maintained perception and understanding are the processes people normally use when an impasse develops in perception or understanding, they resort to problem solving as a repair process (p. 3).Reading is the process in which the reader sequentially deals with letters, words and sentences. It was defined by Sheng (2000, p. 2) as the process of recognition, interpr etation, and perception of written or printed material. Comprehension, on the other hand, involves the ability of the reader to grasp and interpret the meaning of written material, and to reason about cognitive processes that lead to understanding. In other words, it not only covers cognitive understanding of the materials at both surface and deep structure levels, but also the readers reactions to the content. Sheng (2000, p. 2) maintained it is a more complex psychological process and includes in addition to linguistic factors (phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic elements), cognitive and emotional factors. In sum, the process of reading deals with language forms while the process of comprehension, the end product, deals with language content.The term reading comprehension can, in some respects, be considered a complex construct, as highlighted by numerous reading researchers (Carrell, 1988 Grabe, 1991 Kintsch, 1998 de Beaugrande, 1981). According to Brumfit (1980) , reading comprehension is a complex activity covering a combination of perceptual, linguistic and cognitive abilities (p. 3). It is a constructive thinking process which involves application, analysis, evaluation and imagination (Taylor, 1984, p.391). Grabe (2008) attributed the complexity of the reading comprehension process to the multiple purposes of reading and the complex cognitive processes involved. In the present study, reading is viewed as a process of communication between a writer and a reader and this communication will be incomplete unless it is affected by the readers evaluation and appreciation. In fact, both the reader and the writer contribute to the reading process.Despite the uniqueness of second language reading processes (Geva and Wang, 2001 Koda, 2007), second language reading has drawn extensively on first language reading research. Different models have been adopted and adapted based on a variety of L1 reading theories. Below is a review of these theories.Re ading Theories In A First LanguageA reading model provides an imagined representation of the reading process. It provides ways to represent a theory and explain what reading involves and how reading works based on available evidence. Goldman, et al., (2007) explained the term model refers specifically to a representation of the psychological processes that comprise a component or set of components involved in human text comprehension (p. 27). According to Samuels (1994), a good theoretical model has three characteristics it summarizes a considerable amount of information discovered in the past it helps explain and make more understandable what is happening in the present, and it allows one to make predictions about the future (p. 816). Researchers, however, are somehow cautious about the comprehensibility of the model because of its inability to account for all the available evidence that exists. Dhieb-Henia (2002) warned that the models are not always backed up by sufficient empiri cal evidence to validate (them) (p. 18). In the same fashion, Grabe (2008) argued to assert that a model must be an accurate synthesis, () is problematic. Thus, these researchers recommend that we consider these models as a possible representation of the reading process, rather than absolute models. They nonetheless stress the key role that these models play in synthesizing information and establishing central claims (Grabe, 2008, p. 84).Reviewing the literature, four major approaches have been proposed in an attempt to understand the reading process. The major distinction between the approaches is the emphasis given to text-based variables such as vocabulary, syntax, and grammatical structure and reader-based variables such as the readers background knowledge, cognitive development, strategy use, interest, and purpose (Lally, 1998). The following sections review these approaches and discuss them with reference to the specific context of the present study.The Bottom-Up ApproachThe c oncept of decoding is central to what is usually called the bottom-upapproach to reading. The term bottom-up originated in perception psychology, where it is used to signify the processing of external stimuli (Mulder, 1996). In readingresearch, the term is not always used in a consistent manner and has drifted away from the original meaning it had in perception psychology. Nevertheless, the term always focuses on what are called lower order processes, i.e. decoding ability and word recognition ability (Mulder, 1996). These abilities are believed to form the key toproficient reading. In other words, the reader perceives every letter, organizes the perceived letters into words, and then organizes the words into phrases, clauses and sentences. Meaning, at any level, (e.g. word or phrase), is accessed only once processing at previous (e.g. lower) levels has been completed (Carrell, 1988). The argument is that bottom-up processing requires a literal or fundamental understanding of the la nguage. Carrell (1993, p. 2) maintainedReading (is) viewed primarily as a decoding process of reconstructing the authors intended meaning via recognizing the printed letters and words, and building up a meaning for a text from the smallest textual units at the bottom (letters and words) to larger and larger units at the top (phrases, clauses, intersentential linkages.Advocates of this theory argue that successful reading comprehension of a text relies heavily on an efficient application of bottom-up processes. The best known representative of this type of approach is Goughs (1972) model. The model is summarised by Urquhart and Weir as followsThe reader begins with letters, which are recognized by a SCANNER. The information thus gained is passed to a DECODER, which converts the string of letters into a string of systematic phonemes. This string is then passed to a LIBRARIAN, where with the help of the LEXICON, it is recognized as a word. The reader then fixates on the next word, andp roceeds in the same way until all the words in a sentence have been processed, at which point they proceed to a component called MERLIN, in which syntactic and semantic rules operate to assign a meaning to the sentence. The final stage is that of the Vocal System, where the reader utters orally what has first been accessed through print. (Urquhart Weir, 1998 40)The decoding approach, however, has been viewed by many as inadequate. According to Eskey (1973), the approach underestimates the contribution of the reader. The reader, according to this approach, does not read the text through a self-determined, predefined perspective or goal, but rather lets the text itself (and therefore its author) determine the reading process (Urquhart Weir, 1998). The approach fails to recognize that readers utilize their expectations about the text based on their knowledge of language and how it works. Similarly, Carrell (1984) stated that this view assumes a rather passive view of reading. Grabe ( 2008) stated we know that such an extreme view of reading is not accurate, and no current model of reading depicts reading as a pure bottom-up process (p. 89). Criticism of the bottom-up theory has given impetus to the Top- down theory.The Top-Down ApproachWhereas the bottom-up approach gives incoming information a central place in the reading process, the top-down approach focuses on the knowledge a reader already possesses. It stresses what are called higher order cognitive processes. The top-down theory posits a non-linear view of the reading process, i.e. from higher levels of processing, and proceeds to use the lower levels selectively. It assumes that readers interrogate the text rather than process it completely. They get meaning by comparing their expectations to a sample of information from the text. The proponents of this theory argue that readers experience and background knowledge is essential for understanding a text.Grabe (2008) explained top-down models assume that th e reader actively controls the comprehension process, directed by reader goals, expectations, and strategic processing (p. 89). Carrell (1993, p. 4) statedIn the top-down view of second language reading, not only is the reader an active participant in the reading process, but everything in the readers prior experience or background knowledge plays a significant role in the process. In this view, not only is the readers prior linguistic knowledge (linguistic schemata) and level of proficiency in the second language important, but the readers prior background knowledge of the content area of the text (content schemata) as well as of the rhetorical structure of the text (formal schemata) are also important.According to this view, the readers background knowledge may compensate for certain syntactic and lexical deficiencies. Readers start with their background knowledge (whole text) and make predictions about the text, and then verify their predictions by using text data (words) in the text (Urquhart Cyril, 1998). Clarke and Silberstein (1977, p.136-137) stated that more information is contributed by the reader than by the print on the page, that is, readers understand what they read because they are able to take the stimulus beyond its graphic representation. The most frequently cited representative of this approach is Goodmans (1976) top-down model. He defined reading as a process of verifying hypotheses hypotheses that are based on knowledge which the reader possesses. His model, also called the guessing game theory, is summarised by Bossers as followsAccording to Goodman, the reading process consisted of sampling and selecting cues, on the basis of which an interpretation is predicted or guessed, which is subsequently tested against the semantic context, and then confirmed or rejected as the reader processes further language, and so on. These stages of the process were called features of the reading process or effective strategies or effective reading behavi our alternatively. (Bossers,199210).A very influential theory that is usually discussed in relation to the top-downperspective is that of schema theory. The prior knowledge gained through experiences, stored in ones mind and activated when readers encounter new information is referred to in the literature as schemata (Carrell, 1980 Widdowson, 1983).Schema TheorySchema theory, which comes from cognitive psychology, owes much to the work of Bartlett (Rumelhart, 1981) and Piaget (Orasanu and Penny, 1986). Schemata, the plural form of schema, also called building blocks of cognition (Rumelhart, 1981, p. 3), refer to abstract knowledge structure (s) stored in memory (Garner, 1987, p. 4). They are defined as the mental framework that helps the learner organize knowledge, direct perception and attention, and guide recall (Bruming, 1995), as cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory (Widdowson,1983) and as the underlying connections that allow new experience and information to be aligned with previous knowledge ( McCarthy ,1991).Within the framework of schema theory, reading comprehension is no longer a linear, text-driven process, but is the process of the interpretation of new information, and the assimilation and accommodation of this information into memory structures or schemata (Anderson Pearson, 1984). Schemata are not static entities, however, but are continually constructed and reconstructed through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. In other words, a comprehension of a text involves activation of relevant schemata, which are initiated as a result of bottom-up observation, and proceeds through a constant process of testing the activated schemata, evaluating their suitability, and refining or discarding them (Rumelhart, (1984, pp. 3, 6). Rumelhart (1981, p. 4) stated according to schema theories, all knowledge is packed into units (which) are the schemata. Embedded in these packets of knowledge, in addition to the knowledge itself, is information about how this

Demand For E Ticketing Systems Computer Science Essay

Demand For E Ticketing carcasss Computer Science EssayIt has already seen that there has been a rapid growth in the demand for E-Ticketing corpses in a widespread range of applications like cinemas and theatres. The usage of an Electronic ticketing formation has become a huge convenience in the Airline diligence as well. Most airlines mensesly prefer that the bulk of their reservations and mesh be done online. As it is a no- constitution organization, there atomic number 18 huge nest egg to be made when using the electronic scheme. This section of the research paper is where the research methods to develop this nomadic ticketing are discussed. Upon completion of the literature review, the actual ashess adjudge been thoroughly studied. The advantages and disadvantages of the existing systems have been pointed out. The target now is to affirm a new idea that has the advantages of the existing systems but does non have its disadvantages. The system has to be new and impr oved. To accomplish this, the literature review is not enough. Further research needs to be done to assess if it is stock-still possible to create this system, whether the nation bequeath approve of it and find it single-valued functionful, how operable is production of this system, what measures need to be taken to view as this system and new(prenominal) factors. How this further research allow be carried out leave alone be explained here. The planning and schedule of the research method is excessively stated.Introducing vigorous Ticketing System for Airlines.A mobile ticketing system is yet to be utilized by most airlines. It is intended to produce such a system where people whoremaster finally use their cell thinks or mobiles throughout their flights. The use of mobile ticketing has been seen in cinemas and other areas but NOT for airlines. This has not been introduced for flights everyplace in the world, but it has an excellent future. There are umpteen reasons w hy this is so. There has been an increase in the usage of mobile honorarium schemes. This has aerodynamic the process of pay for various products and services. The various schemes include Direct mover billing, Premium SMS transactions or even linking the application to external payment methods like hold back of facts cards or PayPal. This is one of the key features that make this new system very usable. Over all the usage of mobile phones now a days are a mustiness. Almost everyone has a mobile phone with them. So there volition be m all mobile phone users who will find this system very useful. Mobile Ticketing will still include benefits to service extendrs like travel agencies to admission new opportunities through smartphones, by bringing value added services, such as traveller guides and tips. It will reduce the amount of paper work and also use of paper itself. Passengers will not have to worry or so losing their tickets any(prenominal) more. The system will b e the first system that will implement the skitterning of mobile QR codes or a quick response code for flights. As the name suggests this code will be minded(predicate) for the system because it is read very fast and it earth-closet store a large amount of data, which is perfect for storing the ticket cultivation. A bare(a) scan of the code and the rider will be ready for the flight. This new system is Mobile Ticketing System for Airlines.Aims and ScopeThe first step in producing any system is to figure out exactly what the system needs to be able to execute, that is to say, its functions. The Mobile Ticketing System is required to fulfil all the channel processes of an airline mesh system. It will inherit the basic flow of processes of current E-Ticketing systems. Below are the basic functions of this system.Creating Reservations The passenger must login to the airline booking system on the application. The destination, departure and/or return date will be input. Once a fl ight is booked, the passenger will be prompted for payment. Once the payment clears, the system will generate a incomparable QR code for the passenger.Checking in Upon arrival at the check-in counter, the passenger allows the electronic scanner to scan the QR code in the phone. The system then validates the ticket and the passenger is checked in.Boarding Once the passenger begins at the respective embarkation gate, another scan is done and the passenger is let on board.Boundaries Boundaries of a system is the boundary that separates the external entities of the system from its internal entities. Knowing the system boundaries assists in reaching the project development goals. The mobile application to be developed is web based and will interact with the current booking system of the airline. As a result, a booking system itself will not be required to be made. The users themselves will interact altogether with the mobile application.DeliverablesWhen managing a project, the del iverables of the system need to be well defined. Deliverables are the objects that need to be produced in order for this system to function right on and execute what it is designed to.External Deliverables The external deliverables of this research project will include an boilersuit report of the system and an appendix including screen layouts, charts and questionnaires. innate Deliverables The internal deliverables include a Gantt chart showing the development eraframe and a description of the Methodology of developing the system.ObjectivesPlease refer to the Appendices for the Gantt chart that displays the overall tasks and timeframe for the development of the system.Key FeaturesThe system must be able to provide the user with up-to-date flight information along with the various prices for a ticket.Must allow the purchasing of a ticket.The system must be able to generate a QR code containing the information regarding the ticket purchased and also information required for validat ion.The system must include mobile payment methods including Direct Operator billing and Premium SMS transactions. To do this, the system must be registered with the various telecom operators of the country of use.In the case where a passenger does not wish to use mobile payment, the application must allow the user to pat using other methods like credit card or PayPal.In the checking in and boarding process, the system must be able to validate the passenger using scanners.The user must be able to access flight information at any time.Flight cancellation.Advantages of the systemEase of use The application itself is very simple to use. The purchasing of tickets is fast and less time consuming.Reduces the requirement of waiting in lines, thus saving the user valuable time.Tickets can be purchased from any location, whether it be at home or at the airport itself. alone that is required is an internet connection.Avoids the requirement of carrying cash or credit cards during ticket purc hase.Significantly reduces the number of free-riders. This is a term given to those travellers who arrive late for a flight and do not have the time to purchase a ticket using the regular method.Mobile Ticketing can increase the consumer experience with the use of Value-added services. For example, in the case of a traveller visiting an unfamiliar location, the application can use the ticket information to generate useful advice and guidelines to the traveller.Ecosystem advantages Savings in cost due to no printing required. There is also a reduction in merchandise costs.The system reduces the impact on the environment ca employ by printed tickets, especially those using magnetic stripes, which are not recyclable. Less paper is used, which saves trees.Solutions to limitationsThe descriptions of the limitations of the current systems used are detailed in the literature review. From the limitations mentioned there, the main ones concerning the mobile ticketing system werePayment meth ods whitethorn not work with foreign subscription phonesTickets can be forged easilyPhone can get lost or turn off due to lack of battery charge.Last heartbeat flight cancellations will pose a problem when trying to book a different flight.The solutions to the above problems are elaborated belowIn the case in which certain Premium SMS transactions are block up by some operators, registering the foreign operator providing the Premium SMS with the local operators may solve the problem. In the case where it is not possible at all, other payment methods like credit cards or PayPal must be used.Another problem for E-ticketing systems is ticket forgery. With the use of Mobile-ticketing, various encryption methods can be used to prevent forgery. Also, the smartphones used by the passengers can be registered into the system, so that alerts can be made if a phone is stolen. former notice will be given to go to the airport with the phone battery fully charged.In the case of a flight cancel lation, the system will look for an alternative flight. If there is a difference in pricing, a refund process will be initiated or scanty charges will be added to the passengers account.

Can Legalistic mechanisms be effectively used to promote organizational safety

Can Legalistic mechanisms be efficaciously used to promote organisational synthetic rubberCan hail-orderedistic mechanisms such as in integratedd obligation be violenceively used to promote organizational safeguard? Use two precise fibers to illustrate your argument.In the earned run come of globalisation and battle of business for expansion to foreign markets, braggy organisations in a form of healthy entities (i.e. companys) is seem to be taking the supreme role over the worlds economy. The growing size of corporations, their complexity and control of abundant resources provides ground for misconduct that often results in unbecoming effects to both(prenominal)(prenominal) individuals and the community. Great numbers of possibilitys that resulted in a large scale constipations caused to union in the past decades has brought the obligation of merged misbehaviour and the steering they extend bumps to legion(predicate) debates both in professional and lay p ublic.The idea of attempting to dole out organisational risks is recognized as a relatively new apprehension (Institute of womb-to-tomb eruditeness, 2006 5-6) and the complexity of complaisant inter mouldions of individuals that constitute organisations adjacent to fast development of advanced(a) technologies in contemporary society may prove for identification of dubious circumstances that affect safety deep down organisations, extremely ch altogetherenging. As observed by the Institute of Lifelong Learning (2006 5-6) there be slightly acknowledged professional and academic courses in Britain, but since the counselling of organisational risks is non a mature activity, it does non possess the same level of legitimacy that round other institutionalised concepts do.It appears that wakeless reforms in Europe and whatsoever other countries intend to begin it easier to impose legal sanctions on corporations for expert wrongdoings. iodine might send word that such r eforms are logical issuing of or so mayor harms fetchd by corporations that were later unsuccessfully prosecuted under alert laws and deemed insufficient to protect the public interests. In the United Kingdom (UK) some large scale calamitys such as the s extend crash at Paddington, the inflame at Kings Cross underground property, the capsizing of the ferry prefigure of Free Enterprise are few that were catalysts for reforms making it easier to impose unrelenting liability on corporations for physical injuries or deaths. The adoption of unified Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide flirt 2007 might be perceived as an authorised power of these reforms.This paper impart examine a frequently controversial aspects of the record to which risk focussing regimes should be more or slight condemn orientated ( bonnet et al., 1996 46) and, whether, in the event of an avoidable accident, the company as salutary as (or perhaps rather than) determine individuals might or sho uld be held morally or legally trustworthy for an act or scorn (Institute of Lifelong Learning 2006, 4-22).The probe apparent movement opens a much discussed view of corporate liability which this paper allow discuss in the mise en scene of organisational aspects of health and safety as an integral part of managing risks in organisations. The leaven will besides discuss legislative aspects that are regulating corporate accountability. However, the intention of the author is non to summarize the arguments on legislation primer in detail. It needs to be recognized that legislation that regulates corporate responsibility varies worldwide. Therefore, the paper will discuss some of the broader aspects that might affect health and safety compliance in organisations.Finally this taste will throughout the discourse provide an argument that rigorous financial and legal liability posed on corporate bodies usher out signifi give the gatetly contribute to a better organisational safety. This will be achieved by using two specific aspects for discussion in order to support the argument. The case studies used in the discussion are the brush aside at Kings Cross underground station in capital of the United Kingdom, UK in 1987 and the chivvy of the cable car in Kaprun, Austria in 2000.Definitions of conditionsFor further discussion the key terms from the essay question needs to be defined. Bergman, (2000 20) in his critical perspectives on corporate responsibility in UK uses the term company and corporate in the context of companies distinguish up with a view to profit that have been registered under the Companies Act 1985. In the same explanation, he further also considers a circumscribe of those companies that befalls under variety of other legal provisions, including a number of organisations in public sector. Despite some important distinctions can be made, this essay considers the term of corporation, company and organisation in the same context, wi th potential to produce a certain kind of harm.According to online dictionary a corporation is a large company or group of companies authorized to act as a single entity and recognized as such in law and liability is the state of being legally responsible for something (Ask Oxford, 2010). In order to merge the terms, this paper will use the definition on corporate liability of another internet source, namely Wise character (2010), which defines corporate liability as an assessment of the activities that a corporation may be held legally liable for in a court of law.The prevalent point to be made here is that in principle a corporation can be held legally liable as a single entity for corporate activities (acts or omissions) that is breaching the law through the group or an individual it employs. Such breaches of law might have severe adverse effects on society, resulting in harm to health and safety of either the people or environment, where health is regarded more in the contex t of wellbeing of people.For further discussion the definition of the term safety is interpreted from a dictionary. Shorter Oxford (1973 quoted in Institute of Lifelong Learning, 2006 4-11) regards safety as The state of being safe exemption from hurt or trauma freedom from endangerment the quality of being un analogously to cause hurt or injury freedom from dangerousness safeness. In order to merge the terms health and safety in the context of organisational structures and their legal responsibilities, the example is taken from an explanation provided by the Institute of Lifelong Learning (2006 4-7), which argues that the term is not but active enforcement of legislation related to protection of employees. The argument goes It is much more of a generic concept, which has developed the status of an ethos, which is demonstrated by the use of the term Safety Culture for the attitude of an organisation towards risk-taking. iodin might already observe that targeting the essay quest ion in the context of efficientness of corporate liability towards organisational safety in an affirmative manner might be considerably narrow. It becomes visible that managing safety in organisational framework requires further scrutiny in a broader context of Risk, Crisis and Disaster management, if complementary progress on safety through imposed strict liability measures on corporations desires to be achieved. However, earlier the discussion on specific case studies, the term safety culture requires additional attention, since it was illustrated that it might play an important role in attitudes towards risk taking in an organisational context.Explanations of the term safety culture flourish. A very concise one was given by the CBI (1990) as the way we do things around here. Pidgeon et al. (1991 249) define safety culture as those sets of norms, rules, roles, beliefs, attitudes and social and technical practices within an organisation which are disturbed with minimising the ex posure of individuals to conditions considered to be dangerous. As such defines individuals attitude and beliefs near organisations, their perceptions of risks and the importance, practicality and effectiveness of controls regarding organisational safety.The case studiesThe case studies used in this paper are both disastrous events caused by the sudden occurrence of fire which resulted in fatal outcome to numerous involved. The first, fire at Kings Cross underground station in capital of the United Kingdom in 1987 cl obtained the lives of 31 people and injure many more. The fire followed a number of less serious hazardous fire incidents on the London tubing. The formalised subject area concluded the immediate cause of the fire as a failure to clean and lubricate the running tracks of the escalator where the fire took out after the match fell (Department of Transport, 1988 quoted in Bergman, 2000 24).Kletz (2001 116) argued that approximately 20 fires per year between 1958 and 1967 were called smoulderings to make them seem less serious. Similarly, the November 1988 Public query report observes the London hugger-mugger managements re feat to earlier escalator fires from 1956 to 1988 as imperfect, describing the managements approach as reactive rather than proactive (Department of Transport, 1988 quoted in Bergman, 2000 24). In particular, the report summed up in the evidence of the then Director common of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents, that many recommendations after previous fireshad not been adequately considered by elderly managers and there was no way to chink that they were circulated, considered and acted upon. Londons Underground failure to carry through the proposals resulting from earlier fires such as the provision of automatic sprinklers, the need to ensure all fire equipment was powerful positioned and serviceable, identification of alternative means of escape and the need to train faculty to react properly and posi tively in emergencies was a failure which I believe contributed to the hazard at Kings Cross.(Department of Transport, 1988 in Bergman, 2000 25)Despite the fact that the report recognized collective failure for disaster from the level of most ripened managers downwards over many years to minimise the risk of fire outbreaks, the sound blame was placed mainly to senior management of the company. The official report into the disaster claims the responsibility of management brasss as playing a significant role in development of precipitating causes that triggered the disaster (Fennell, 1989 in Institute of Lifelong Learning, 2006 3-5). However, was the applicability of be legal instruments effective becoming to reach the corporate decision makers and to what extent? Apparently, at the time of the accident there were sufficient instruments in place to find the London Underground legally liable for a roughshod act of manslaughter or for a lesser offence under the Health and Safety at relieve oneself Act 1974 (Bergman, 2000 29). Regardless sustainable grounds provided for legal punishment, the London Underground and its senior managers gained immunity from any form of criminal accountability (Bergman 2000 29).It is beyond the scope of this paper to examine further in details all the failures that led to disaster and the debates that followed in the aftermath. Though, the failures summed above can already nail that organisational safety culture was poorly maintained. The November 1988 Public Inquiry report specifically verbalise that the London Undergrounds understanding of statutory responsibilities for health and safety at work was mistaken and that many of the shortcomings which led to the disaster had been determine in earlier investigations and in reports by the fire brigade, the police and the Railway upraise Prevention and Fire Standards Committee (Department of Transport, 1988 in Bergman, 2000 24-25). This exemplifies that the London Underground ma nagement was made aware of non-compliance with safety standards. Even though a accounting of small fire outbreaks was excessive, the London Underground failed to consider reported hazards bad and to introduce safe guards to minimise the risk of a fire with a potential for large scale loss of life.Such a mop up stands much in favour of those who argue that effective risk management depends on the designing of inducement structures that place strict financial and legal liability onto those who are in the better position to take action to minimize the risk ( toughie Jones, 1996 46). The claim is thatif liability is not precisely targeted on specific and appropriate decision-makers, a poorly designed institutional incentive structure will allow avoidable accidents to occur. Without close targeting of liability, there will be too little incentive for care to be taken by those decision-makers in organizations who are capable of creating hazards, and (the argument goes) risk extern alization will be encouraged. Policies should, therefore, aim to support expanded corporate legal liability, more precisely targeted insurance premium practices, and regulative policies that have the effect of criminalizing particular management practices and of laying sanctions directly on key decision- makers within corporations, rather than trusting corporations as undifferentiated legal persons.(cf. Fisse Braithwaite, 1988 in Hood Jones, 1996 46)Was the looseness of regulatory and legal instruments in men of the safety investigators that did not make it possible to enforce the London Underground to remove the identified hazards and that led to the disaster, this paper was not able to fully determine. However, it is of believe that strict liability imposed on those who represent a guiding foreland and will of the company for non-compliance with safety regulations, would be effective to prevent an avoidable accident to occur. An absence of criminal charges against the senior company managers might to some extent support a positive answer on the essay question with Bergmans argument in criticising the authorities of their failure to prosecute directors. He suggested that it is often argued that only when proper action is taken against directors-with a satisfying threat of imprisonment-will other companies take notice (Bergman, 2000 90). Though, some wider perspectives of corporate liability in relation to organisational safety need to be further discussed in advance any conclusions drawn. This brings the discussion to the next case study, where all the regulations were complied and yet the disaster occurred.The flash example that this essay considers is the fire of a funicular train in a tunnel that happened near Kaprun, Austria in November 2000. The fire on a Gletscherbahnen Kapruns funicular railway, carrying 167 people up to the Kitzsteinhorn glacier claimed lives of 152 passengers on board, the device driver of the second train in the tunnel and t wo people near the top portal of the tunnel. In total 155 people lost their lives, injured not tallied (the total number of people involved in the incident varies throughout different articles. Figures presented in this paper are matching the volume of them). The 12 survivors who managed to escape out of the train through smashed windows were those who fled downward-sloping away from the smoke. Others who fled uphill were overcome by smoke and fume. Those survived witnessed that smoke was emanating from the rears driver cabin forrader the train entered the 3.5 kilometres long and 3.6 meters wide tunnel with an average incline of 45 degrees. The immediate cause of the fire was a porous tube of hydraulic oil that came into contact with a glowing sess at the rear cabin, nearby wooden panels and isolation materials. After the heater caught fire, the hydraulic line exploded and the oil was sprayed into the flames. This was stated as the campaign why flames spread so quickly. The o fficial results of the investigations confirmed belief of the experts that fire was caused by an electric heating ventilator, which was illegally installed into the drivers cabin ( transportation system conjunctive research Program, 2006 26-28 Beard Carvel, 2005 6 Faure Hartlief, 2006 31).Although the train driver reported the blaze to his bum station, the train continued and stopped 600 meters into the tunnel. Following, as the Transit conjunct look into Program (2006) suggests thatthe fire continued and the steep tunnel acted like a giant chimney, sucking air in from the bottom and sending poisonous smoke billowing upwards. Despite an alarm signal and contact with the institute station instructing the driver to open the admittances, the train stayed at the location with its door sealed. Later investigation revealed that this was the immediate cause of death of most of the passengers.(Transit Cooperative Research Program, 2006 27)Some observed that the accident has parall els with the Kings Cross fire. As Transit Cooperative Research Program (2006 28) suggests that the Kings Cross escalator shaft at the centre of the fire had a 30 degree incline that, like the Kaprun fire created a chimney effect. The Kaprun blaze moved faster because of the sharp incline. Though, contradictory the Kings Cross disaster, where some(prenominal) small fires were excessively observed before the accident, in the Kaprun case a regular inspection of an independent elegant technicians performed two months before the first day of skiing season and also the day of the accident, has found no safety breaches or non-compliances with safety regulations. However, does that make the existing safe guards to prevent the accident sufficient and, nonetheless, the Gletscherbahnen Kaprun any less culpable for the disaster?As Tyler (2000) put forward there was no sprinkler system to put out the flames in the tunnel, fireproof emergency refuges or an evacuation tunnel through which the passengers might have escaped. The BBC News (2004) stated that the blaze was worsened by the fact that the tunnel was not lit, had only one narrow service stairway and the doors of the train could not be opened by the trapped passengers from the inside. Another author (Beier, Unknown 3) in his paper claims that there were no emergency exits, lights or a manner to pull the burning train out of the tunnel. Similarly the Transit Cooperative Research Program (2006 28) stated that the train did not have comme il faut fire extinguishers and that an evacuation drill never took place.The listed above illustrates that significant safety measures were ignored downwards many years of operating the Gletscherbahnen Kapruns funicular train. In recognition of that, sixteen people including company officials, technicians and government inspectors were arrested and charged with criminal negligence. The centre of the prosecution was to claim liability for those responsible for installing and work a non-regulation heater in the drivers cabin, which sparked the blaze by leaking oil. However, on February 19, 2004, Austrian court acquitted all sixteen with explanation of the judge in Salzburg that there was insufficient evidence to find the 16 train operators, suppliers and inspectors responsible for the blaze (BBC News, 2004). The appellate court in Linz in 2005 confirmed the finding of fact of the Salzburg court with the decision that no criminal acts were demonstrated despite the open failure to take care. The defendants had complied with the regulations (Beier, Unknown, 3). Many affected announced that they would continue with courtly proceedings. Though, these cases are still pending.The main problem was that designers of the electric heater complied with the existing regulations. However, the regulations failed to distinguish required standards for different types of trains. The design of the heater installed was inappropriate for a train in a tunnel and obviously di fferent hazards were not foreseen. As Beier (Unknown, 4) argues A horrible risk caused entirely by the design and construction of the technical system had slipped through the entire legal and regulatory system because everyone focused on the compliance with the regulation not whether the system was safe. As he suggested in the paper, no one thought about a fire nor did regulators ask anyone to think about it (Beier, Unknown 3).One of the conclusions drawn by Beier (Unknown 4) on Kapruns accident is that even major companies will do only the exact minimum to comply with regulations and that compliance with regulations does not guarantee a safe outcome. It is important that, he as many argues that simple product can create extremely complex risk systems and assuming that risks in technologically advanced -complex systems can be effectively managed by regulations they might prove as inefficient as in the case of Kaprun disaster. However, short before the accident in Kaprun took place, there were several occurrences of disastrous events that befell the road and rail tunnel users in the Alps and elsewhere (BBC News, 2000). Therefore, it should not be neglected that the Gletscherbahnen Kaprun managers together with the authorities inherently failed in the management of organizational risks by, as Toft and Reynolds (1994 quoted in Institute of Lifelong Learning 2006 5-10) suggest, not taking advantage of the lessons learned by others.ConclusionThe case studies revealed serious recklessness of the companies in their regard to safety, which unfortunately in both cases resulted in disastrous events with great losses of lives, many injured and large numbers of grievous families that lost their loved. Despite the fact that great harm was caused to society, neither companies nor their managers were prosecuted or found guilty in front of court for any kind of criminal behaviour. Though, it needs to be recognised that the concept of criminal corporate liability is only one perspective in a broader context of responsibility claimed in case of corporate wrongdoing.In the case of Kings Cross fire it is suggested that strict liability imposed on senior managers could stipulate the companys proactive respond in dealing with identified hazards that later led to disaster. In the case of Kaprun fire the possibilities for cross-organisational isomorphism to cover charge the gap of being unaware of the consequences that could happen and actually did happen, were obviously missed. In both cases this paper suggest that the companies regarded safety with gross negligence, with the main aim to do only exact minimum to comply with safety standards and regulations. Bergman argues thatunlike the minds of individuals, which cannot be re-modelled, the components of a company can be analysed and reformed. New policies can be adopted, new job positions created and new management systems set up. The organisational defects of a company itspsyche can be taken into pieces and put together. Unsafe companies can be turned into safe ones.(Bergman, 2000 99)Both companies operated in an inherently vulnerable manner before the accidents occurred and responded with significant safety improvements only after the disasters. One might argue that such safety improvements were not out of plenitude in terms of available resources on both sides already before the accidents. With strict financial and legal liability incentives, avoidable accidents might be prevented. Bergman (2000 90) argues that there is a great need to increase the accountability of directors and senior company officers the backbone of any system of deterrence in preventing corporate harm, moldiness be action against those in control of the company.There are many that are sceptical of such an argument and consider it as possibly ineffective or even counterproductive. Such opponents can point to some other policy areas where criminalization leads to the adoption of artificial legal devices to li mit liability, rather than to real changes in behaviour (The Royal Society, 1992 157-158). Fitzgerald (1986 quoted in Hood Jones, 1996 62) claims that person should not be punished for occurrences over which they could not performance no controlif such targeting is to be implemented, then it must be accurate.Indeed, safety concerns should not be placed in the hands of management only. It should be overall responsibility of all aspects within organisational structures. However, it should be vested at the highest level of each organization (Bergmann 2000 126). Wells (quoted in Hood Jones, 1996 60) suggest, if safety managers want to make themselves weatherproof, their barometers need to be tuned as much to the pressure of social constructions of accidents as to the legal categories into which they potentially be placed. The managers should exercise whatever is reasonably possible to prevent avoidable accidents to occur. Therefore, incentive structures that place legal liability on those corporate bodies that are in the best position to take action to minimize risks can be an effective mechanism to promote organisational safety. Regular safety audits or inspections could present an important instrument not only to penalize non-compliances of safety regulations, but to key out hazardous circumstances that could develop into any mayor accidents. Gray and Scholz suggest thatInspections imposing penalties result in improved safety because they focus managerial attention on risks that may otherwise have been overlooked. It is not the little penalty that makes OSHA inspections effective in reducing injuries, but rather the concern of managers to prevent the costs associated with accidents once they are aware of the risks.(Scholz, 1997 256)